“The reason women don't play football is because eleven of them would never wear the same outfit in public.” How are women represented in football related texts?
There is clear evidence to prove that women have been playing football almost since its ancient existence in the Han dynasty (25-220 AD), when it was known as “Tsu Chu”2. But despite women’s involvement in the sport dating so far back, the sport clearly receives less media coverage as well as less acceptance by the public then there is for men’s football. Sport within the media is classically known to contain a dominant ideology of patriarchy. Men generally are almost always thought of to be associated with all sports within the media. However, in recent times traditional values and traditional stereotypes such as “the housewife” have been broken and women are generally adopting more active and central roles in the sports field of the media. This is emphasised through recent TV sports shows such as “Inside Sport” 3, presented by Gabby Logan, which portrays a much more positive and progressive impression of women in sports.
The idea of women playing football was not thought of in the UK until after the First World War. With men away fighting, women had the opportunity to take up such hobbies. Under a century ago “Despite being more popular than some men's football events” 2 within the U.K. the most notable historical ban in women’s football, the "1921 Football association ban on women playing football" 2 was introduced. This ban stopped women from playing football on the same grounds as men. If this ban had not occurred today's society may have found that women playing football is just as acceptable and as well played as men football. In addition, this would have consequently resulted in just as great media coverage for women’s football and possibly seen the sport, at just a competitive level within the media as men’s football.
Despite such preventions to women’s football, it is gradually becoming much more socially acceptable and has gained much greater media coverage as opposed to in the past. For example, the China Women’s World Cup 2007 had a high amount of viewer ship and was extremely popular worldwide. Viewing figures for the Women's World Cup final 2007 in Germany peaked at about 12 million 4. The World Cup 2007 was therefore viewed upon as an immense success, both by organisers and the widely entertained audience5. Therefore despite historical limitations and limitations existing till date, women’s football has now progressed to become "one of the world’s fastest growing sports”6.
In addition, at present the USA is of key influence worldwide, as it is the only country in the world where women’s football can be played as an actual full time, paid profession. The USA women’s football team is referred to as “the top country in the world for women’s soccer”7. However, women’s soccer in the USA did not make much key development until the 1970’s. But once the sport became increasingly aware of, it was widely popular both at youth and amateur level. There was an extremely rapid growth in interest by mainstream sports fans as well as the media7. Many believe, that this great acceptance and rapid popularisation of women’s football within the USA, has been significantly responsible in making women’s sports appeal to a wider audience. Furthermore the development of women’s soccer within the U.S.A has been of great influence, as today’s world aspires to be increasingly americanised and therefore will take greater interest in what is popular within America.
Within the media, up to the late 1970’s, Gaye Tuchman argued that there was a “symbolic annihilation of women by the mass media” (1978)8. Tuchman asserted the belief that women were portrayed as “incompetents and inferiors”, in comparison with dominant men in the media, during her 1978 study. Tuchman stated that during this time period, men dominated every aspect shown on television such as drama and film. Even in the traditional roles that women were generally expected to dominate in, such as solving emotional and practical problems were controlled and dominated by men. Comparatively, under a decade later Gillian Dyer (1987) 8 argued that by the mid 1980’s television began to increasingly take women more seriously and they were assuming more central roles, asides from the role of “housewife” or “victim”. However, Dyer found in her 1987 study, that women were still dominated by men in a number of fields, in particular sports. Gillian Dyer from her study discovered that sports still remained “the preserve of men”. During this time period, Dyer’s study emphasises the under representation of women within the sports-media. Dyer’s study in particular points out that due to selective broadcasting an “invisibility of women” 9 was created within the sports media.
“Overall, media coverage of men’s sports massively exceeds women’s, which is given less than 10 % of time available”10. Furthermore, “women’s sports are almost always likely to be subjected to gender-marking”10. Women in sports in comparison with men are much more likely to be popular within the media and society, if they fit into a typically subjected concept of sexualisation (Brookes, 2002)11. For example within tennis, Anna Kournikova is not a world ranked and renowned tennis player, however due to her glamorised appearance, she has attained greater celebrity status than many of the world’s greatest sportswomen. This in particular, would link too women’s football as it often is referred to and known as “a game for rough girls”12. Many women that play football are known for having masculine qualities like appearing well built and broad-shouldered amongst other things. This would link to Brooke’s study of 2002, stating that women cannot be popular within the media if they do not adhere to this concept of sexualisation and have good looks. Therefore, a possible reason for women’s football not being as popular within the media, as some other women’s sports and media fields, is due to the idea that many women who play football, are not perceived to be good looking or provide visual pleasure, as argued by Laura Mulvey, to an expected dominant male audience. Mulvey, influenced by Freudian psychoanalytic theory, asserts the belief that men are the “Bearer of the look” within the mass media and women are often shown within the media for sexual objectification or visual pleasure, to a constructed male audience13. This can be greatly linked to women’s football, as a possible reason for a lack of viewer ship present may be as there is a lack of visual pleasure being offered to a targeted football audience, consisting primarily of males.
In particular, this concept of women’s involvement in sports only being popular due to them being glamorous is emphasised through the tabloid newspaper the “Daily sport”14. This newspaper discusses popular sports, in particular football. However, women’s involvement in this newspaper has nothing to do with sport, but is solely to provide visual pleasure to a dominant target male audience. Many believe the paper offers great sports news, but the great amount of “topless girls” 15 is unnecessary and does not really have any relevance to sports. However, the tabloid paper highlights much of the target audience’s viewpoints on women’s involvement within sports and particularly, stresses much of football’s target audience’s views on women’s involvement within football.
Match of the Day 16 demonstrates how women’s involvement in football has developed over the years, being both a historical and contemporary text. Prior to very recent times even in the late 1990's and early 2000's Match of the Day did not provide any coverage of women’s football at all and overall neither did BBC Sport. In the past, there was much more emphasis on football being tightly associated with just a male audience. However, today women are generally being more considered as part of an audience. Furthermore, in the past primarily the 1960’s, due to women’s key role being housewife’s, there would be a key cause for a lack of interest in sport as they would not have had the opportunity to play football, therefore could not have taken it up on a professional level as they could do today. Furthermore, due to Match of the Day being an influential text in promoting football within the UK, it is likely that a lack of coverage for women’s football would have hindered the sports progression within the UK. This would link to the two-step flow theory 17 as Match of the Day is a key TV programme in influencing public opinion within the UK. The audience will therefore, follow the beliefs that Match of the Day to an extent promotes. Therefore, as much of the day airs more coverage of women’s football, there is likely to be greater participation as well as support from an audience whose beliefs are influenced and reflected by the programme. Today Match of the day airs many key women’s football events, such as the China World Cup 2007 and Women’s domestic cup finals. In addition, in women’s matches the institution of match of the day BBC, makes special effort to keep as much off the commentators and presenters Female, which would to an extent even promote a feminist ideology. A prime example is Jacqui Oatley. Jacqui Oatley commentated on various games during the women’s world cup. Furthermore, she is often described as “Match of the Day’s First Lady” 18 as not only has she commentated on various women’s matches, she is the first woman in Match of the Day’s history to ever commentate for a men’s match. Furthermore, the fact that Jacqui Oatley is not particularly presented to adhere to the “butch rough girl”19 being associated with Women in football reflects that this stereotype is gradually diminishing. Therefore, historically match of the day very much promoted a Patriarchal ideology, portraying men dominant within a hegemonic society. However, contemporarily match of the day to a great extent promotes a more equal rights ideology.
In addition, the representation of women within other films, magazines and newspapers amongst others, clearly has influence upon many people’s social viewpoints. This can be particularly linked to the Hypodermic Needle theory20, which specifies, what the audience is “injected” with by the Mass Media is what in turn they will believe. Therefore, if the mass media promotes a certain ideology or message the target audience is highly likely to be influenced by it. Social reflection is clearly presented through many media texts, as they portray different audience’s viewpoints on women in general as well as women playing football.
Soccer A.M 21 is a programme that discusses football events and is broadcasted on Sky Sports. Soccer A.M, in comparison with the BBC’s Match of the Day targets a much smaller audience with viewer ship regularly being about 300,000 according to BARB 22. This clearly reflects that a show from Sky sports, in comparison with a show from the BBC, is likely to have less of an impact as it is only viewable by a selective audience, who pay to consume programmes broadcasted by Sky, in comparison with the BBC which is a public broadcaster and whose programmes are available to everyone with a TV license. This is important in reflecting why Soccer AM does not make major attempts to involve and promote women playing football as the BBC do, as Sky does not have to cater for everyone. In particular Soccer AM looks at women in a manner of “objectification and as a source of pleasure”23, as stated in the Male Gaze theory by Laura Mulvey. Men within the programme are the dominant group at all times and are the “lookers” and women are primarily in the programme to be “looked at”. Despite there being both a male and female presenter for soccer A.M many would argue this is not a means of promoting an ideology of equality, as the female presenter (Helen Chamberlain), is both good looking and glamorous, hence she may also be there as means of objectification and to provide a target male audience with visual pleasure, as almost all of the women that are shown within the programme are portrayed. Soccer AM, within every episode portrays a number of women in a manner where they know nothing about football and are dressed in a manner where they are solely there to provide the target male audience with a sense of “scopophilia”23. Moreover, as opposed to promoting women playing football as Match of the Day does, Soccer AM to an extent demotes the idea of women taking an involvement within Football, as the target audience for the programme is constructed to be solely males, reflected through the humour in particular and the portrayal of the women broadcasted. Women are not catered for within the programme and are not considered to be a part of the target audience. Almost all of the women also adhere to the “dumb bimbo” stereotype believed to have originated in the early 1920’s 24. They are primarily presented as “promiscuous, stupid, uneducated and helpless” 24 in comparison with the dominant male, making Soccer A.M., portray a dominant patriarchal ideology.
Comparatively, Inside Sport 25 presented by “Angelic Host” 26 Gabby Logan as quoted by the liberal Observer, promotes a dominant ideology of equal rights and arguably a dominant feminist ideology, emphasised through the way Gabby Logan is always situated in the middle with all other members of the show sitting beside her (usually men), making her the centre of attention. Gabby Logan in particular, is a well-known figure for her sports knowledge and her ability to present just as good or even better then most male presenters. “She's glamorous, but it's not her looks that have made Gabby Logan a key member of ITV's world cup team”26. Gabby Logan was a key presenter for ITV’s world cup 2006 team, and many believe she “beats the men hands down at sports trivia - and even Des Lynam thinks she could be his successor”26. Within Inside Sport Gabby Logan presents women in the media to be sophisticated, well educated and intelligent. In addition, with Soccer A.M. solely broadcasting and discussing men’s football, Inside Sport within every episode inclusively broadcasts and discusses women’s involvement in sports, or shows influential and uprising female sports figures. For example Gabby Logan’s interview with “big sharran” 27, the British female sumo wrestler was extremely authentic as well as shocking to the target audiences, as female sumo wrestling is something barely shown or discussed on TV. Through such prime examples it is evident that Inside Sport aims to shed light on women’s sports and promote it to a broader audience.
Today in a changing society and in particular the existence of the “new man” coming about in the 1970’s and 1980’s, there has been an inevitable influence on the acceptance of women’s football, from men and society in general. The fact that more and more men are getting in touch with there “feminine side”28, reflects that football now does not take such a huge patriarchal stance and does not stand for pure masculinity and overall being macho. The fact that today, as opposed to the past more and more men are developing feminine qualities, such as sensitivity, would therefore change many peoples viewpoints.
A key football figure associated with the new man is David Beckham. David Beckham is a household figure and the name “Beckham” is a brand within itself. David Beckham a commonly referred to “new man” is known for his sensitivity such as enjoying private time away with his family and makes this very clear to the mass media. Furthermore, Beckham is also known for his adoption of female traits such as his very “keen fashion sense”29. David Beckham himself is seen as role model by many and is greatly in touch with his feminine side. As well as being known for one of the greatest footballers of all time, Beckham is equally well known for being sensitive and for being “portrayed as a loving father, a New Man and a gentle man” by the media30. Therefore, Beckhams viewpoints and beliefs are therefore clearly likely to have influence on many people in particular his global fan base and audience consisting of millions. In addition, the fact that David Beckham comes from a traditionally sexist working class background is likely to have influence over an even wider fan base to adopt more qualities of the “new man”. This audience response can also link to the two-step flow theory 31, as Beckham is likely to have immense influence over his huge fan base, which will aspire to adopt similar qualities as himself.
Finally, "bend it like Beckham"(dir: Gurinder Chadha, 2002) 32 is an extremely recognised film for promoting women’s football. The film is about a young Indian girl, who tries to play football, but her traditional Indian family restrict her from doing so. However, “Jess Bhamra” within the film inevitably takes football up as a profession in America. Moreover, promoting women’s ability to professionally compete within football was not the films sole intention. Bend it like Beckham is a film that promotes equal rights as well as female independence, therefore making it particularly liked by feminists. It is evident that this film alone played a key role in the progression of women's football in the UK. A key reason for popularity being the film bears David Beckhams name. This in particular, would greatly increase the films popularity and ability to reach a broader audience. Another fact in making the film such a success is the key role the Football Association in UK played in promoting the film. The Football Association’s support enabled it to be so popular not only in Britain but also worldwide. This involvement and support by the F.A enabled the director Gurinder Chada to reach a global audience as the F.A. immensely aided within the advertising and promotional aspects of Bend it like Beckham.
Therefore, in conclusion despite in the past women being “invisible” in the sports media, women’s football is becoming much more popular in reaching a global audience. Women’s involvement within football and the representation of this within the media has greatly increased. Over the years women’s football and sports in general are being increasingly shown on screen and are now targeting a much broader audience. However, despite limitations still existent hindering the sport from progressing, as much as many of its supporters would like it too, the sport and its representation within the media has greatly increased, reflecting a society that is increasingly adopting and promoting an equal rights ideology.
1 http://www.notable-quotes.com/f/football_quotes.html
2 [1]http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women's_football_(soccer)
3 Inside Sport
4 http://www.iht.com/articles/2007/10/29/sports/arena29.php
5 http://www.fifa.com/womenworldcup/news/newsid=610976.html
6 ] Hong,F.A.,Mangang,J.A.(2004): Soccer, women and sexual liberation. USA,CA:Routledge
7 http://www.sover.net/~spectrum/womensoverview.html
8 Gauntlett, David (2002): Media, Gender and identity; Routledge
9 http://www.jstor.org/pss/190027
10 Branston, Gill & Stafford, Roy (2003): The Media Student's Book:Abindgdon, Oxon: Routledge
11 Branston (2002): The Media Student's Book:Abindgdon, Oxon: Routledge
12 Williams, Jean (2003): A game for rough girls: CA, Routledge
13 http://www.aber.ac.uk/media/Documents/gaze/gaze09.html
13 http://www.aber.ac.uk/media/Documents/gaze/gaze09.html
14 Daily Sport- (Tabloid Newspaper)
15 http://www.reviewcentre.com/reviews11439.html
16 Match of the day
17 Lazarsfeld, P.F., Berelson, B. & Gaudet, H. (1944). The people’s choice: How the voter makes up his mind in a presidential campaign. New York: Columbia University Press.
18 http://www.dailymail.co.uk/pages/live/articles/sport/football.html?in_page_id=1779&in_article_id=449195
19 Williams, Jean (2003): A game for rough girls: CA, Routledge
20 Berger, Arthur Asa Essentials of Mass Communication Theory London: SAGE Publications, 1995.
21 Soccer am
22 http://www.digitalspy.co.uk/forums/showthread.php?t=641504
23 http://virtual.clemson.edu/groups/womenstudies/flc436/mulvey.html
23 http://virtual.clemson.edu/groups/womenstudies/flc436/mulvey.html
24 Sardar, Ziauddin & Loon,van,Borin (2000): Introducing Media Studies: Duxford, Cambridge: Icon Books LTD
24 Sardar, Ziauddin & Loon,van,Borin (2000): Introducing Media Studies: Duxford, Cambridge: Icon Books LTD
25 Inside Sport
26 http://observer.guardian.co.uk/osm/story/0,,708320,00.html
27 http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/tv_and_radio/inside_sport/6661317.stm
28 http://www.cartoonstock.com/directory/n/new_man.asp
29 http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/cambridgeshire/3522920.stm
30 http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,1065-2257878,00.html
31 Lazarsfeld, P.F., Berelson, B. & Gaudet, H. (1944). The people’s choice: How the voter makes up his mind in a presidential campaign. New York: Columbia University Press.
32 "bend it like beckham"( dir: Gurinder Chadha, 2002)
3,059 words
Books
[20] (Page 5) Berger, Arthur Asa Essentials of Mass Communication Theory London: SAGE Publications, 1995.- This Book talks about mass communication theories and in particular has a lot of detailed information regarding the Hypodermic needle and two step flow audience theory. Describes how through mass communication audiences consume information.
[11] (Page 3) Branston (2002): The Media Student's Book:Abindgdon, Oxon: Routledge – The book provides key and detailed information regarding various media topics, however contains precise information which I could implement in my study regarding the representation of women.
[10] (Page 4) Branston, Gill & Stafford, Roy (2003): The Media Student's Book:Abindgdon, Oxon: Routledge – This book is a newer edition and provides key and detailed information regarding various media topics, however this book I found had more information regarding Female representation within sports in particular, which I found useful to include and quote within my study.
[6] (page 2)Hong,F.A.,Mangang,J.A.(2004): Soccer, women and sexual liberation. USA,CA:Routledge- This book talks about the progression of women’s football from the past and describes how it is one of the fastest growing sports, making particular references to key development within the USA.
[8] (page 2) Gauntlett, David (2002): Media, Gender and identity; Routledge- Includes many key gender theories and discusses the development of gendered representation within the contemporary media. Discusses key development in female representation within the media from the past up till now which I found useful to include in my study at various points.
[17] (Page 4/page5) Lazarsfeld, P.F., Berelson, B. & Gaudet, H. (1944). The people’s choice: How the voter makes up his mind in a presidential campaign. New York: Columbia University Press. Further a book discussing mass communications, contains a great amount of detail regarding how audiences are influenced making particular references to the hypodermic needle theory and two step flow theory amongst many others.
[24] (Page 6/page 7) Sardar, Ziauddin & Loon,van,Borin (2000): Introducing Media Studies: Duxford, Cambridge: Icon Books LTD – This book contains a lot of key information regarding the representation of women within the media, which I made references to within my independent study. It discusses stereotypes in particular and how accurate they are In providing representation within the media.
[12] (Page 3/ page 5) Williams, Jean (2003): A game for rough girls: CA, Routledge – This book discusses the stereotype of women playing football having masculine qualities. This is a key stereotype discussed within my essay as it shows how this could be an aspect hindering the development of women’s football.
Websites
[1] (page 1) http://www.notable-quotes.com/f/football_quotes.html - Quote for essay question taken from this website, by Phyllis Diller a female stand up comedian in America.
[2] (page 1)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women's_football_(soccer) – Link describes key historical as well as contemporary development of women’s football.
[4] (page 2) http://www.iht.com/articles/2007/10/29/sports/arena29.php - Link providing viewing figures for popular China World Cup 2007.
[5] (page 2) http://www.fifa.com/womenworldcup/news/newsid=610976.html - This website emphasises on the popularity of the China World Cup 2007
[7] (page 2) http://www.sover.net/~spectrum/womensoverview.html - This website states the development of women’s football within the USA and how it became popular over there.
[9[ (page 3)http://www.jstor.org/pss/190027 - Website contains information regarding the Symbolic annihilation of women.
[13] (page 3) http://www.aber.ac.uk/media/Documents/gaze/gaze09.html - This website has information on Laura Mulveys Male Gaze theory, and describes it in detail.
[15] (page 4) http://www.reviewcentre.com/reviews11439.html - This website reviews the newspaper the daily sport.
[18] ( page 5_ ) http://www.dailymail.co.uk/pages/live/articles/sport/football.html?in_page_id=1779&in_article_id=449195 – This website contains information on Jacqui Oatley a well known female football commentator, which is an article taken from the newspaper the dailymail.
[22] (page 6) http://www.digitalspy.co.uk/forums/showthread.php?t=641504 – This website has the viewing figures for Soccer Am.
[23] (Page 6) http://virtual.clemson.edu/groups/womenstudies/flc436/mulvey.html- This website provides further information on Laura Mulvey’s Male Gaze theory
[26] (page 7) http://observer.guardian.co.uk/osm/story/0,,708320,00.html – This website has an article on it about Gabby Logan, a female sports presenter, taken out of the left wing newspaper the Guardian.
[27] (page 7) http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/tv_and_radio/inside_sport/6661317.stm - This website is about the BBC sports show Inside Sport, presented by Gabby Logan
[28] (page 7) http://www.cartoonstock.com/directory/n/new_man.asp - This website has a lot of key information about the New Man, illustrated through cartoon strips, taken out of magazines.
[29] (page 8) http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/cambridgeshire/3522920.stm - This website describes how David Beckham is greatly in touch with his feminine side and is a key figure associated with the term the “new man”.
[30] (page 8) http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,1065-2257878,00.html – Another Website about David Beckham being in touch with his feminine side.
Articles
[18] ( page 5_ ) http://www.dailymail.co.uk/pages/live/articles/sport/football.html?in_page_id=1779&in_article_id=449195 – This website contains information on Jacqui Oatley a well known female football commentator, which is an article taken out of the Daily mail.
[26] (page 7) http://observer.guardian.co.uk/osm/story/0,,708320,00.html – This website has an article on it about Gabby Logan, a female sports presenter, taken out of the left wing newspaper the Guardian,
[28] (page 7) http://www.cartoonstock.com/directory/n/new_man.asp - This website has a lot of key information about the New Man, illustrated through cartoon strips taken out of Magazines.
[30] (page 8) http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,1065-2257878,00.html - Another Website about David Beckham being in touch with his feminine side, an article taken out of the Newspaper the Times.
TV and Film
[3] (Page 1/ page 7) Inside Sport, BBC- References to various dates since it began on the 10th april year 2007. Presented by Gabby Logan, show that discusses key sports events.
[16] (Page 4) Match of the Day, BBC- References to various dates dating back from the 1960’s up until present.
[21] (Page 6) Soccer AM, Sky Sports- Reference to recent times being aired in particular the year 2007. A show that discusses key sports events, presented by Andy Goldstein and Helen Chamberlain.
[32] (Page 8) “Bend it Like Beckham” ( Dir: Gurinder Chada, 2002)- Film about an Indian girl wanting to play football, however her family does not allow her to.
Monday, 5 May 2008
Sunday, 24 February 2008
Goodness Gracious me: Going for an english
This video, exaggerates the stereotype of whtie people typically "going for an indian", however by creating a role reversal, where indians go for an english. This creates humour as the indinan characters mock white peoples taste in food, the way they act and their inability to pronounce indian names amongst other things.
Goodness Gracious Me:typical asian parents
This clip emphasises on the stereotype of the importance that indian parentsplace on their children getting not only a good education, but being the best compared to everyone else. This creates humour as the son achieve 4 a's and 1 B amongst many other things however the father was still unsatisfied and disappointed, despite him being only 6 years old and achieveing all this.
Goodness Gracious me- Rehabilitation
This video,exaggerates on the stereotype of how indians place emphasis on maintaining tradition and cultural balues. It particulalry creates humour as it states that a loss of culture and tradition is like an illness.
Self Evaluation
Attainment- C- I think i am on about a C at the moment, but pushing towards a B. My homework and class work reflects this.
Effort-2- I think my effort in class is quite good. I contribute when i have valid points and generally work hard.
Punctuality-3- I'm usually on time but have been late a few times here and there.
Submission and quality of homework-2- My homework is usually of a good quality and i spend quite a lot of time on it.
Ability to work independently-2- I work well by myself and dont usually get distracted easily.
Quality of writing-2- Im getting my essay structure and quality of my writing much better now then before, and my essays are of a higher quality then at the start of the year.
Organisation of Media folder-3- My media folder is well organised, but a few sheets missing here and there.
Oral contributions in class-3- I contribute now and then, but could and should become more involved in class discussions.
Contribution to the debate team-3- Contribution to debate team has been ok so far. Brought in research to all debate clubs, and have been working over it during the holidays.
Extra-curricular work -4- Dont really do much extra curricular work for media...
Standard of Module 5 blog- 2- My module 5 blog is always updated when work is set, i dont think there's anything missing. And i post up research for my independent study , even when there is no work set.
Standard of Module 6 blog-3- Could be posting more up on my med 6 blog, but all work set is on there.
Effort-2- I think my effort in class is quite good. I contribute when i have valid points and generally work hard.
Punctuality-3- I'm usually on time but have been late a few times here and there.
Submission and quality of homework-2- My homework is usually of a good quality and i spend quite a lot of time on it.
Ability to work independently-2- I work well by myself and dont usually get distracted easily.
Quality of writing-2- Im getting my essay structure and quality of my writing much better now then before, and my essays are of a higher quality then at the start of the year.
Organisation of Media folder-3- My media folder is well organised, but a few sheets missing here and there.
Oral contributions in class-3- I contribute now and then, but could and should become more involved in class discussions.
Contribution to the debate team-3- Contribution to debate team has been ok so far. Brought in research to all debate clubs, and have been working over it during the holidays.
Extra-curricular work -4- Dont really do much extra curricular work for media...
Standard of Module 5 blog- 2- My module 5 blog is always updated when work is set, i dont think there's anything missing. And i post up research for my independent study , even when there is no work set.
Standard of Module 6 blog-3- Could be posting more up on my med 6 blog, but all work set is on there.
Sunday, 3 February 2008
Coursework
“The reason women don't play football is because eleven of them would never wear the same outfit in public.” How are women represented in football related texts?
There is clear evidence to prove that women have been playing football almost since its ancient existence in the Han dynasty (25-220 AD), when it was anciently known as “Tsu Chu” [1]. But despite women’s involvement in the sport dating so far back, the sport clearly receive much less media coverage and generally much less acceptance by the public then there is for men’s football. Sport within the media is classically known to contain a dominant ideology of patriarchy. Men generally are almost always thought of to be associated with all sports within the media. However in recent times traditional values and traditional stereotypes such as “the housewife” have been broken and women are generally adopting more active and central roles in the sports field of the media. This is emphasised on through recent TV sports shows such as “Inside Sport” [14], presented by Gabby Logan, which particularly portrays a much more positive and progressive impression of Women in sports.
The idea of women playing football was not revived in the UK until after the First World War, with men away fighting, women had the opportunity to take up such hobbies. Under a century ago “Despite being more popular than some men's football events” [1] within the U.K. the most notable historical ban in women’s football, the "1921 Football association ban on women playing football" [1] was introduced. This ban stopped women from playing football on the same grounds as men. . Had this ban not occurred women's football could have possibly progressed just as well as men's football in the UK and abroad. If this ban had not occurred today's society may have found that women playing football is just as acceptable and as well played as men playing football. In addition this would have consequently resulted in just as great media coverage for women’s football and possibly seen the sport at just a competitive level within the media as men’s football.
Despite such preventions to women’s football it gradually in recent times has began to be much more socially acceptable and has began to get much greater media coverage as oppose to the past. For example the china Women world cup 2007, had so much viewer ship and was so popular worldwide, it to an extent caused outrage and was the key cause for debate amongst many people who did not expect the event to be so widely enjoyed and entertaining [2]. Therefore despite historical limitations and limitations existing till date, women’s football has now progressed to become "one of the worlds fastest growing sports” [3].
Many argue that women and men playing together in a match, is a step too far as women are unable to physically compete with men. However many believe that women should be able to compete against one another at the same level that men do. However some just believe that women’s football is not at the same skill level as men’s football and don’t see women deserving enough to make it an occupation. In particular Dr Jean Williams argues that we should “look at the equal opportunities law to review whether women should be allowed to compete at the highest level [4]. Dr Williams argues that it is against a woman’s equal opportunities to not be able to compete at the highest level and have just as much media funding and coverage as men’s football and the Uefa coach feels the law should be reviewed.
Within the media up to the late 1970’s Gaye Tuchman argued “ the symbolic annihilation of women by the mass media” (1978) [20]. Tuchman asserted the belief that women were portrayed as “incompetents and inferiors” in comparison with dominant men in the media, during her 1978 study. Tuchman stated that during this time period men dominated every aspect shown on television such as drama and film. Even in the traditional roles that women are generally expected to dominate in, such as solving emotional and practical problems were controlled and dominated by men. Comparatively under a decade later Gillian Dyer (1987) [20] argued that by the mid 1980’s Television began to increasingly take women more seriously and they were assuming more central roles, asides from the role of “Housewife” or “ victim”. However in particular Dyer found in her 1987 study, that women were still dominated by men in a number of fields, in particular sports. Gillian Dyer from her study discovered that despite improvement in the media in general sports still remained “the preserve of men”. During this time period within sports Dyer’s study emphasises on the under representation of women within the sports-media. Dyer’s study in particular points out due to selective broadcasting the “invisibility of women [5] was created within the sports media.
“Overall media coverage of men’s sports massively exceeds women’s, which is given less then 10 % of time available” [6]. Furthermore “Women’s Sports are almost always likely to be subjected to gender-marking” [6]. Women in sports in comparison with men are much more likely to be popular within the media and society if they fit into a typically subjected concept of sexualisation (Brookes, 2002) [7]. For example within Tennis Anna Kournikova is not a world ranked and renown tennis player, however due to her glamorised appearance and good looks, she has attained greater celebrity status then many of the worlds greatest sportswomen. This in particular would link too women’s football as it often is referred to and known as “a game for rough girls” [8]. Many women that play football are known for having masculine qualities like appearing well built, broad shouldered amongst other things. This would link to Brooke’s study of 2002, stating that women cannot be popular within the media if they do not adhere to this concept of sexualisation and have good looks. Arguably a reason for women’s football therefore not being as popular within the media as some other women’s sports and media fields, is due to the idea that many women who play football are not perceived to be good looking or provide visual pleasure as argued by Mulvey to an expected dominant male audience.
In particular this concept of women’s involvement in sports only being popular due to them being glamorous is emphasised on through the tabloid newspaper the “Daily sport”. This newspaper discusses key sports even in particular football, however women’s involvement in this paper has nothing to do with sport but is solely to provide visual pleasure to a dominating target male audience. Many believe the paper offers great sports news however the great amount of “topless girls” [9] is unnecessary and do not really have any relevance to sports. However the tabloid paper highlights much of the target audience’s viewpoints on women’s involvement within sports and in particular stresses much of footballs target audiences viewpoints on women’s involvement within football.
Match of the day [10] emphasises on how women’s involvement in football has developed over the years, being both a historical and contemporary text. Prior to recent times as in the late 1990's and early 2000's match of the day did not provide any coverage of women’s football at all and overall neither did BBC sport. In the past there was much more emphasis on football being tightly associated with just a male audience, however today women are generally being more and more included as an audience. In addition the target audience back in the 1960's for match of the day is inevitably a middle class audience, as BBC 2 was not easily obtainable by everyone, as it is today. Match of the day now however, can be viewed by everyone who has a TV, hence it is much more likely to be directed at a more working class audience as well as a middle class one. This clearly would have had some influence over why women in England took a lack of interest in viewing football, or an interest in being involved in the sport at all, as match of the day in England was a key cause of the development and popularity of football. Today Match of the day airs many key women’s football events such as the China World Cup 2007 and Women’s domestic cup finals among other things. Therefore historically match of the day very much promoted a Patriarchal ideology, portraying men dominant within a hegemonic society. However contemporarily match of the day to a great extent promotes an equal rights ideology. In addition in women’s matches the institution of match of the day BBC, makes special effort to keep as much off the commentators and presenters Female, which would to an extent even promote a feminist ideology.
In addition the representation of women within other films, magazines, newspapers amongst others, clearly has influence upon many peoples social viewpoint. Social reflection is clearly presented through many media texts, as they portray different audiences viewpoints on women in general as well as women playing football.
Soccer A.M [11] is a programme that discusses football events, appears on sky sports and in particular would be targeted at a middle class audience due to it not being accessible to everyone as it is on sky. However the heavy stance on creating comedy and the often-unsophisticated language would arguably make it more appealing to a more working class audience. Soccer A.M in particular looks at women in a manner of “objectification and as a source of pleasure” [12], as stated in the Male Gaze theory by Laura Mulvey. Men are the dominant group at all times and are the “lookers” and women are primarily in the programme to be “looked at”. Despite there being both a male and female presenter for soccer A.M many would argue this is not a means of promoting an ideology of equality, as the female presenter (Helen Chamberlain), is both good looking and glamorous hence she may also be there as means of objectification and to provide a target male audience with visual pleasure, as many of the women shown within the programme are portrayed. The show repeatedly in every episode portrays a number of women in a manner where they know absolutely nothing about football and are dressed in a manner where they are solely there to provide the target male audience with a sense of “scopophilia”. Almost all of the women also adhere to the “dumb bimbo” stereotype believed to have originated back in the early 1920’s [13]. They are primarily presented as “promiscuous, stupid, uneducated and helpless” [13] in comparison with the dominant male, making Soccer A.M., portray a dominant patriarchal ideology.
However comparatively Inside Sport [14] presented by “Angelic Host” [15] Gabby Logan as quoted by The Observer, promotes a dominant ideology of equal rights and even arguably a dominant feminist ideology, emphasised on through the way Gabby Logan is always situated in the middle with all other members of the show sitting beside her (usually men), making her the centre of attention. Gabby Logan in particular is a well-known figure for her sports knowledge and her ability to present just as good or even better then most male presenters. “She's glamorous, but it's not her looks that have made Gabby Logan a key member of ITV's World Cup team” [15]. Gabby Logan was a key presenter for ITV’s world cup 2006 team, and many believe she “beats the men hands down at sports trivia - and even Des Lynam thinks she could be his successor”[15]. Within Inside Sport Gabby Logan presents women in the media to be sophisticated, well educated and intelligent. In addition with Soccer A.M. solely sticking to showing and discussing men’s football, Inside Sport within every episode inclusively shows and discusses women’s involvement in sports, or uprising, influential and inspiration female sports figures.
Today in a changing society and in particular the existence of the “new man” coming about in the 1970’s and 1980’s, has inevitably caused great influence on the acceptance of women’s football, from men and society in general. The fact that more on more men are getting in touch with there “feminine side” [16], reflects that football now does not take so much of a great patriarchal stance and does not stand for pure masculinity and overall being macho to an extent. The fact that today as oppose to the past more and more men are developing feminine qualities, such as sensitivity, would therefore change many people viewpoints making them adopt a more equal rights stance and follow an ideology promoting equality.
A key football figure associated with the new man is David Beckham. David Beckham is a household known figure and the name “Beckham” is a brand within itself. His viewpoints and beliefs are therefore clearly likely to have influence on many people in particular his global fan base and audience consisting of millions. David Beckham himself is seen as role model by many and is greatly in touch with his feminine side. As well as being known for one of the greatest footballers of all time, Beckham is equally well known for being sensitive and for being “portrayed as a loving father, a New Man and a gentle man” by the media [17]. This “new man” within society and furthermore within football represents a key social change, emphasising and promoting a developing equal rights ideology. This ideology within itself has been instrumental in the development of women’s football overall, as well as within the media.
In addition "bend it like Beckham"(dir: Gurinder Chadha, 2002) [18] is an extremely key and recognised film for promoting women’s football. However promoting women’s ability to professionally compete within football was not the films sole intention. Bend it like Beckham is a film that promotes equal rights as well as female independence, therefore making it particularly liked by feminists. It is clear and evident that this film alone played a key role in the progression of women's football in the UK.A key reason being David Beckhams happiness due to the film bearing his name. This in particular would also increase the films popularity and ability to reach a broader audience. Beckham stated to the mass media worldwide how he enjoyed the football scenes and was happy to see women's football being glamorised. Such comments from David Beckham alone inevitably play a huge role in promoting women's football, as he is one of the worlds most iconic sports figures, is in support of the movement and believes it should be pushed forward. Another fact in making the film such a success is the key role the Football Association in UK played in promoting the film. The Football Associations support enabled it to be so popular not only in Britain but also worldwide. This involvement and support by the F.A enabled the director Gurinder Chada to reach a global audience as the F.A. immensely aided within the advertising and promotional aspects of bend it Like Beckham.
Furthermore another key sports figure that represents breaking down stereotypes of women’s involvement in Sports, is Sue Barker. As well as being known for one of the greatest female tennis players of all time, Sue Barker is just as renown for her great skills as a broadcaster and involvement with the media. Sue barker has been the presenter of a “question of sport” since 1997 [19], and prior to this has made many appearances on this traditionally patriarchal show. Within the show Sue Barker despite being out numbered by the male guests and “captains”, remains the centre of attention and holds greatest dominance within the show. This is as within inside sport, emphasised on particularly through the way in which she is seated. Sue barkers is situated in the middle with all other male characters to her left and right, and the often extreme close ups and low angled shots are used to emphasise on Sue barkers great position of authority. As like Gabby Logan Sue barker is well known for her sports trivia skills and her ability to present just as well as men. Since joining BBC sport “Sue has presented many great sporting events including the summer and Winter Olympics, Wimbledon, Grandstand and Sports Review of the Year.” [19]
Therefore in conclusion despite in the past women being “invisible” in the sports media today the sport is becoming much more popular reaching a global audience. Women’s involvement within football and the representation of this within the media has greatly increased. Over the years women’s football and sports in general are being increasingly shown on screen and are now targeting a much broader audience. However today limitations still exist hindering the sport from progressing, as much as many of its supporters would like it too, but the sport and its representation within the media has greatly increased in a society that is increasingly adopting and promoting an equal rights ideology.
Word Count:2822
There is clear evidence to prove that women have been playing football almost since its ancient existence in the Han dynasty (25-220 AD), when it was anciently known as “Tsu Chu” [1]. But despite women’s involvement in the sport dating so far back, the sport clearly receive much less media coverage and generally much less acceptance by the public then there is for men’s football. Sport within the media is classically known to contain a dominant ideology of patriarchy. Men generally are almost always thought of to be associated with all sports within the media. However in recent times traditional values and traditional stereotypes such as “the housewife” have been broken and women are generally adopting more active and central roles in the sports field of the media. This is emphasised on through recent TV sports shows such as “Inside Sport” [14], presented by Gabby Logan, which particularly portrays a much more positive and progressive impression of Women in sports.
The idea of women playing football was not revived in the UK until after the First World War, with men away fighting, women had the opportunity to take up such hobbies. Under a century ago “Despite being more popular than some men's football events” [1] within the U.K. the most notable historical ban in women’s football, the "1921 Football association ban on women playing football" [1] was introduced. This ban stopped women from playing football on the same grounds as men. . Had this ban not occurred women's football could have possibly progressed just as well as men's football in the UK and abroad. If this ban had not occurred today's society may have found that women playing football is just as acceptable and as well played as men playing football. In addition this would have consequently resulted in just as great media coverage for women’s football and possibly seen the sport at just a competitive level within the media as men’s football.
Despite such preventions to women’s football it gradually in recent times has began to be much more socially acceptable and has began to get much greater media coverage as oppose to the past. For example the china Women world cup 2007, had so much viewer ship and was so popular worldwide, it to an extent caused outrage and was the key cause for debate amongst many people who did not expect the event to be so widely enjoyed and entertaining [2]. Therefore despite historical limitations and limitations existing till date, women’s football has now progressed to become "one of the worlds fastest growing sports” [3].
Many argue that women and men playing together in a match, is a step too far as women are unable to physically compete with men. However many believe that women should be able to compete against one another at the same level that men do. However some just believe that women’s football is not at the same skill level as men’s football and don’t see women deserving enough to make it an occupation. In particular Dr Jean Williams argues that we should “look at the equal opportunities law to review whether women should be allowed to compete at the highest level [4]. Dr Williams argues that it is against a woman’s equal opportunities to not be able to compete at the highest level and have just as much media funding and coverage as men’s football and the Uefa coach feels the law should be reviewed.
Within the media up to the late 1970’s Gaye Tuchman argued “ the symbolic annihilation of women by the mass media” (1978) [20]. Tuchman asserted the belief that women were portrayed as “incompetents and inferiors” in comparison with dominant men in the media, during her 1978 study. Tuchman stated that during this time period men dominated every aspect shown on television such as drama and film. Even in the traditional roles that women are generally expected to dominate in, such as solving emotional and practical problems were controlled and dominated by men. Comparatively under a decade later Gillian Dyer (1987) [20] argued that by the mid 1980’s Television began to increasingly take women more seriously and they were assuming more central roles, asides from the role of “Housewife” or “ victim”. However in particular Dyer found in her 1987 study, that women were still dominated by men in a number of fields, in particular sports. Gillian Dyer from her study discovered that despite improvement in the media in general sports still remained “the preserve of men”. During this time period within sports Dyer’s study emphasises on the under representation of women within the sports-media. Dyer’s study in particular points out due to selective broadcasting the “invisibility of women [5] was created within the sports media.
“Overall media coverage of men’s sports massively exceeds women’s, which is given less then 10 % of time available” [6]. Furthermore “Women’s Sports are almost always likely to be subjected to gender-marking” [6]. Women in sports in comparison with men are much more likely to be popular within the media and society if they fit into a typically subjected concept of sexualisation (Brookes, 2002) [7]. For example within Tennis Anna Kournikova is not a world ranked and renown tennis player, however due to her glamorised appearance and good looks, she has attained greater celebrity status then many of the worlds greatest sportswomen. This in particular would link too women’s football as it often is referred to and known as “a game for rough girls” [8]. Many women that play football are known for having masculine qualities like appearing well built, broad shouldered amongst other things. This would link to Brooke’s study of 2002, stating that women cannot be popular within the media if they do not adhere to this concept of sexualisation and have good looks. Arguably a reason for women’s football therefore not being as popular within the media as some other women’s sports and media fields, is due to the idea that many women who play football are not perceived to be good looking or provide visual pleasure as argued by Mulvey to an expected dominant male audience.
In particular this concept of women’s involvement in sports only being popular due to them being glamorous is emphasised on through the tabloid newspaper the “Daily sport”. This newspaper discusses key sports even in particular football, however women’s involvement in this paper has nothing to do with sport but is solely to provide visual pleasure to a dominating target male audience. Many believe the paper offers great sports news however the great amount of “topless girls” [9] is unnecessary and do not really have any relevance to sports. However the tabloid paper highlights much of the target audience’s viewpoints on women’s involvement within sports and in particular stresses much of footballs target audiences viewpoints on women’s involvement within football.
Match of the day [10] emphasises on how women’s involvement in football has developed over the years, being both a historical and contemporary text. Prior to recent times as in the late 1990's and early 2000's match of the day did not provide any coverage of women’s football at all and overall neither did BBC sport. In the past there was much more emphasis on football being tightly associated with just a male audience, however today women are generally being more and more included as an audience. In addition the target audience back in the 1960's for match of the day is inevitably a middle class audience, as BBC 2 was not easily obtainable by everyone, as it is today. Match of the day now however, can be viewed by everyone who has a TV, hence it is much more likely to be directed at a more working class audience as well as a middle class one. This clearly would have had some influence over why women in England took a lack of interest in viewing football, or an interest in being involved in the sport at all, as match of the day in England was a key cause of the development and popularity of football. Today Match of the day airs many key women’s football events such as the China World Cup 2007 and Women’s domestic cup finals among other things. Therefore historically match of the day very much promoted a Patriarchal ideology, portraying men dominant within a hegemonic society. However contemporarily match of the day to a great extent promotes an equal rights ideology. In addition in women’s matches the institution of match of the day BBC, makes special effort to keep as much off the commentators and presenters Female, which would to an extent even promote a feminist ideology.
In addition the representation of women within other films, magazines, newspapers amongst others, clearly has influence upon many peoples social viewpoint. Social reflection is clearly presented through many media texts, as they portray different audiences viewpoints on women in general as well as women playing football.
Soccer A.M [11] is a programme that discusses football events, appears on sky sports and in particular would be targeted at a middle class audience due to it not being accessible to everyone as it is on sky. However the heavy stance on creating comedy and the often-unsophisticated language would arguably make it more appealing to a more working class audience. Soccer A.M in particular looks at women in a manner of “objectification and as a source of pleasure” [12], as stated in the Male Gaze theory by Laura Mulvey. Men are the dominant group at all times and are the “lookers” and women are primarily in the programme to be “looked at”. Despite there being both a male and female presenter for soccer A.M many would argue this is not a means of promoting an ideology of equality, as the female presenter (Helen Chamberlain), is both good looking and glamorous hence she may also be there as means of objectification and to provide a target male audience with visual pleasure, as many of the women shown within the programme are portrayed. The show repeatedly in every episode portrays a number of women in a manner where they know absolutely nothing about football and are dressed in a manner where they are solely there to provide the target male audience with a sense of “scopophilia”. Almost all of the women also adhere to the “dumb bimbo” stereotype believed to have originated back in the early 1920’s [13]. They are primarily presented as “promiscuous, stupid, uneducated and helpless” [13] in comparison with the dominant male, making Soccer A.M., portray a dominant patriarchal ideology.
However comparatively Inside Sport [14] presented by “Angelic Host” [15] Gabby Logan as quoted by The Observer, promotes a dominant ideology of equal rights and even arguably a dominant feminist ideology, emphasised on through the way Gabby Logan is always situated in the middle with all other members of the show sitting beside her (usually men), making her the centre of attention. Gabby Logan in particular is a well-known figure for her sports knowledge and her ability to present just as good or even better then most male presenters. “She's glamorous, but it's not her looks that have made Gabby Logan a key member of ITV's World Cup team” [15]. Gabby Logan was a key presenter for ITV’s world cup 2006 team, and many believe she “beats the men hands down at sports trivia - and even Des Lynam thinks she could be his successor”[15]. Within Inside Sport Gabby Logan presents women in the media to be sophisticated, well educated and intelligent. In addition with Soccer A.M. solely sticking to showing and discussing men’s football, Inside Sport within every episode inclusively shows and discusses women’s involvement in sports, or uprising, influential and inspiration female sports figures.
Today in a changing society and in particular the existence of the “new man” coming about in the 1970’s and 1980’s, has inevitably caused great influence on the acceptance of women’s football, from men and society in general. The fact that more on more men are getting in touch with there “feminine side” [16], reflects that football now does not take so much of a great patriarchal stance and does not stand for pure masculinity and overall being macho to an extent. The fact that today as oppose to the past more and more men are developing feminine qualities, such as sensitivity, would therefore change many people viewpoints making them adopt a more equal rights stance and follow an ideology promoting equality.
A key football figure associated with the new man is David Beckham. David Beckham is a household known figure and the name “Beckham” is a brand within itself. His viewpoints and beliefs are therefore clearly likely to have influence on many people in particular his global fan base and audience consisting of millions. David Beckham himself is seen as role model by many and is greatly in touch with his feminine side. As well as being known for one of the greatest footballers of all time, Beckham is equally well known for being sensitive and for being “portrayed as a loving father, a New Man and a gentle man” by the media [17]. This “new man” within society and furthermore within football represents a key social change, emphasising and promoting a developing equal rights ideology. This ideology within itself has been instrumental in the development of women’s football overall, as well as within the media.
In addition "bend it like Beckham"(dir: Gurinder Chadha, 2002) [18] is an extremely key and recognised film for promoting women’s football. However promoting women’s ability to professionally compete within football was not the films sole intention. Bend it like Beckham is a film that promotes equal rights as well as female independence, therefore making it particularly liked by feminists. It is clear and evident that this film alone played a key role in the progression of women's football in the UK.A key reason being David Beckhams happiness due to the film bearing his name. This in particular would also increase the films popularity and ability to reach a broader audience. Beckham stated to the mass media worldwide how he enjoyed the football scenes and was happy to see women's football being glamorised. Such comments from David Beckham alone inevitably play a huge role in promoting women's football, as he is one of the worlds most iconic sports figures, is in support of the movement and believes it should be pushed forward. Another fact in making the film such a success is the key role the Football Association in UK played in promoting the film. The Football Associations support enabled it to be so popular not only in Britain but also worldwide. This involvement and support by the F.A enabled the director Gurinder Chada to reach a global audience as the F.A. immensely aided within the advertising and promotional aspects of bend it Like Beckham.
Furthermore another key sports figure that represents breaking down stereotypes of women’s involvement in Sports, is Sue Barker. As well as being known for one of the greatest female tennis players of all time, Sue Barker is just as renown for her great skills as a broadcaster and involvement with the media. Sue barker has been the presenter of a “question of sport” since 1997 [19], and prior to this has made many appearances on this traditionally patriarchal show. Within the show Sue Barker despite being out numbered by the male guests and “captains”, remains the centre of attention and holds greatest dominance within the show. This is as within inside sport, emphasised on particularly through the way in which she is seated. Sue barkers is situated in the middle with all other male characters to her left and right, and the often extreme close ups and low angled shots are used to emphasise on Sue barkers great position of authority. As like Gabby Logan Sue barker is well known for her sports trivia skills and her ability to present just as well as men. Since joining BBC sport “Sue has presented many great sporting events including the summer and Winter Olympics, Wimbledon, Grandstand and Sports Review of the Year.” [19]
Therefore in conclusion despite in the past women being “invisible” in the sports media today the sport is becoming much more popular reaching a global audience. Women’s involvement within football and the representation of this within the media has greatly increased. Over the years women’s football and sports in general are being increasingly shown on screen and are now targeting a much broader audience. However today limitations still exist hindering the sport from progressing, as much as many of its supporters would like it too, but the sport and its representation within the media has greatly increased in a society that is increasingly adopting and promoting an equal rights ideology.
Word Count:2822
Sunday, 6 January 2008
Plan for essay
Points to include in introduction
. How long the sports been existant
. What in the past stopped the sport from progressing.
. Whats aided its development now
Programmes and texts to make particular reference to whilst writing up essay
. Soccer A.M.- Contemporary
. Match of the day- Historical primarily- but link to contemporary development
. Inside Sport- Contemporary
Programmes and texts to make particular reference to whilst writing up essay
. Soccer A.M.
. Match of the day
. Inside Sport
Compare how the 3 texts in particular have similar or different portrayals of women in the media, and their involvement in football.
Soccer A.M’S- portrayal
Soccer A.M.,discusses football news and events, but primarily aims to entertain due to its heavy emphasis on comedy.
The costumes used throughout soccer a.m. where women are shown make the women appear to be a subject of the male gaze where they are providing sexual pleasure, to a football audience, who are predominantly expected to be male. This connotes greatly that women are not expected to partake and be involved in football. Despite the presenter one of the presenters of the show being a woman “Helen Chamberlain”, the fact that she watches many women coming on the show mainly to provide visual pleasure as argue by Laura Mulvey connotes that she accepts. Also the institution of the programme which is Sky Sports suggests that Sky sports is a highly male dominated channel, and this is the case as the majority of people that watch the channels are men.
. There is also social reflection through many of Soccer A.M’S episodes. A patriarchal ideology is clearly apparent. A woman’s primary involvement in Soccer A/M/ is to provide visual pleasure, and as far as football goes she has no knowledge or involvement what so ever (Make special references to video on blog of the interview with FHM girls)
. The way that women are portrayed within soccer a.m, creates the impression that football in general is highly male dominated and that it is a topic that women do not know about, or are not expected to know about.
The audience, is likely to be males aged between 16-40, as the humour used within the show would appeal to men that are within this age gap.
Inside sport
Women are being greatly represented in inside sport, as Gabby Logan in the show interviews many football stars that top male interviewers even struggle to get a chance to talk to.
I think Inside Sport has been portrayed in such a way to encourage women to get more and more involved with sports. This hence also gives the impression that women are not being as under represented in sports and the media as often thought.
The Mise-en- Scene also emphasises on the importance of Gabby Logan particularly through the way she is seated in the middle of all those present, each time the show is aired. The professional studio setting also emphasises on Gabby Logan’s striking presence in the show. The close ups to her face and the low angled shots also emphasise upon Gabby Logan’s importance in the show.
The show usually opens in a way where Gabby Logan starts of briefly mentioning the key points to be discussed in the show e.g. the weeks key sports occurrences, who is going to be interviewed on the show e.t.c.
The text belongs to the sports genre. The stars of the show are usually clearly glamorised which of course are Gabby Logan and those interviewed on the show. The text does clearly conform to the conventions of normal sports chat shows such as soccer A.M., football focus e.t.c. The only way it will differentiate itself from Soccer A.M. is that inside sport also contains quite a serious tone whilst sports topics are discussed, Soccer A.M. is a sports show also used to create humour and solely entertain its audience.
The text's institution is the BBC, which is a public broadcaster. This means the text has to cater to all kinds of audiences and has to inform, educate as well as entertain. Inside sport hence has to have some appeal to all kinds of people.
The major values and Ideologies associated with Inside sport don't particularly include a patriarchal ideology as with Soccer A.M. and Football Focus. The fact that Gabby Logan presents the show and that men are included creates an ideology which promotes equality amongst genders, which many other sports show do not promote.
. Despite the presenter of the show being female, I think that males are most likely to view the show and be more attracted to it, as females don’t take as much of a keen interest in sports as males. However females interested in sports and football are more then likely to predominantly consist of being the secondary audience, as football has risen to be the most popular sport across England with females. The fact that the BBC is the institution makes Inside Sport accessible to everyone.
Match of the day- “ Historical text”- 1964
Match of the day first began in 1964, and today still is probably the most commonly known TV show associated with football within England. Though at first many did not get to see it as every household did not have BBC2 in 1964, match of the day did gradually become of greater popularity as the years progressed.
Match of the day would clearly be good to use as an historical text too include in my essay, as i can easily compare what it covered in the past to now. For example prior to recent times as in the late 1990's and early 2000's match of the day did not provide any coverage of women’s football at all and overall neither did BBC sport. In the past there was a much more emphasis on football being tightly associated with just a male audience, however today women are generally being more and more included as an audience.
The fact that everyone being interviewed to talk about the first match of the day coverage in 1964 are men, reflects greatly how football was solely targeted at men and there was a great lack of appeal to women to take an interest in it. In addition the target audience back in the 1960's for match of the day appears to be a middle class audience, as BBC 2 was not easily obtainable by everyone. However now Match of the day can be viewed by everyone who has a TV, as in it is likely to be directed at a more working class audience as well as a middle class one. This may have had some influence over why women in England took a lack of interest in viewing football, or taking interest in being involved in the sport at all, as match of the day in England was a key cause of the development and popularity of football.
Comparison between Soccer AM Inside Sport and match of the day
Soccer AM’s portrayal of women is very different to that of Inside sports. In soccer AM the women are merely there to provide sexual pleasure to a male audience and are never shown to be taking any key involvement in sports.
. Difference in ideology between soccer am and inside sport- patriarchal ideology VS Equal rights/ feminist ideology.
Gabby Logan is a commonly known iconic sports presenter and is tightly associated particularly with football. The programme shows a lot of coverage on women’s sports as well as mens.
.Match of the day pirmarily in the past did no cover any female football, and as it was the primary use of covering football overall in the UK,this could be used as a key reason why womens football did not in the past have great popularity or participation.
Issues, debates and theorists
. Laura Mulvey- Male gaze
. Dyer- how in the past womens sports coverage was near to nothing
. Talk about the debate of women not being as good as men at sports
Books and Links to make reference to
Spender, Dale (1983): Feminist Theorists. Great Sutton Street, London: The womens Press LTD.- This book particularly focuses on providing viewpoints from many of the Key theorists around in the 1980's and even up to three hundred years prior to that. This will greatly fit in to the Social and Historical aspect of my study and furthermore will provide the viewpoint from a key group associated with the progression of female sports, the Feminists.
Curran, James & Gurevitch, Michael (2000):Mass Media and Society, Third edition. Euston Road, London: Hodder Headline group.- This book focuses on providing an over view on many key aspects relevant to my study, particuarly goes in to great detail on every element of SHEP that i can mention in my study. Section 3 (The mediation of Meaning) in particular focuses on representation and has a great amount of detail on the representation of women.
Kingston, Anne (2004): The meaning of wife: Toronto, Canada: HarperCollins Publishers LTD.- This book would heavily be focusing on the political aspect of SHEP, as it provides an explanation into the traditional conservative viewpoint of the family orientated wife. The book explains what is associated with being a wife and what is expected of a wife intodays society. It looks at many iconic figures within the media who defeat the stereotype of women being housewives e.t.c. and looks at many debates associated with the women and marriage. Hence this would be a very useful book to mention in my study as it is very relevant to the representation of women.
Sardar, Ziauddin & Loon,van,Borin (2000): Introducing Media Studies: Duxford, Cambridge: Icon Books LTD- The book particularly looks at and explores the relationship between the Media, ideology, knowledge and power. Much of the book looks at ideologies present within the media and gender represetnation within the media, and hence due to this would be useful to include in my independent study.
Branston, Gill & Stafford, Roy (2003): The Media Student's Book:Abindgdon, Oxon: Routledge- This book focuses on many key aspects of Ideologies, Representation, SHEP, Audience theories, theorists and key media debates that are of high relevenace to my debate. The book also focuses on and goes into detail about many case studies that i can mention and are useful for my independent study.
Arno, Madeleine (1985): Race & Gender:Headington Hill, Oxford: Pergamon Press Ltd- This book goes into great detail about many issues regarding gender particularly within society and also education. It would be of great use in my study to focus on the social and Historical aspect of SHEP, particularly as it provides information regarding the situation in the 1980's and prior to that.
Rayner, Phillip & Wall, Peter & Kruger, Stephen(2001): Media Studies: The Essential Introduction: New Fetter Lane, London: Routledge- This book particularly shows an indepth explanation and study into gender and representation, aswell as presents key debates and case studies, that would be off high relevance to my Independent study. It also goes into great detail regarding ideologies and links to modern day media texts that i could include and refer to in my study.
Stam, Robert(2000): Film theory: Britain: Blackwell Publishers- This book goes into great detail in exploring how females are representated within film. This would be useful in my study as often films reflect and pay an influential role in what is occuring within society. It also shows different audiences viewpoints on women E.G. a male dominated film showing women in a weak role, is likely to have an audience who believe in patriarchy.
Hong,Fan and Mangan,J.A.(2003)Soccer, Women and Sexual liberation: USA: Routledge-This book exemplifies the progression of womens football over the years and is the first in depth study of womens football in particular. All aspects of this book covered will be extremely useful for my study and this is a vital book for me to research into, to find out more about womens football worldwide aswell as in the U.K.
A game for Rough girls: A history of women's football in Britain-Jean Williams - Jean Williams provides a clear insight into the history of women's football in the UK aswell as shows an insight into the stereotype of women who play football being of manly nature or having masculine characteristics. She provides an in depth view of the problems women face and have faced whilst trying to play football.
Links
http://www.footiechick.com/history/history/- This Website briefly summarises womens football and talks of where and when it started. Much of the information can be used in my independent study whilst discussing SHEP
http://virtual.clemson.edu/groups/womenstudies/flc436/mulvey.html- This website provides a detailed description of Laura Mulvey's male "Gaze" theory, a key theory and theorist that i will make references to in my independent study.
http://observer.guardian.co.uk/osm/story/0,,708320,00.html- This is the website of the guardian, which includes a story stating that Gabby Logan is the best sports trivia presenter , that has been around for a long time. Gabby Logan is a key example of acceptance of females in the sports media, who i can mention in my indepdent study.
http://www.thefword.org.uk/features/2007/10/did_you_watch_a- This website is writing about how football has failed women. It argues that media coverage of the womens world cup was appaling, and how people are only interested in watching football if it is men that are playing.
http://www.jesus-is-savior.com/Womens%20Page/christian_women_and_sports.htm-This is a link showing christian's views on sports. It shows that despite in the past women playing sports were frowned, upon christians today encourage their girls to play sports. This again would be linked to SHEP in my essay as it shows the changing social views towards women playing sports.
. How long the sports been existant
. What in the past stopped the sport from progressing.
. Whats aided its development now
Programmes and texts to make particular reference to whilst writing up essay
. Soccer A.M.- Contemporary
. Match of the day- Historical primarily- but link to contemporary development
. Inside Sport- Contemporary
Programmes and texts to make particular reference to whilst writing up essay
. Soccer A.M.
. Match of the day
. Inside Sport
Compare how the 3 texts in particular have similar or different portrayals of women in the media, and their involvement in football.
Soccer A.M’S- portrayal
Soccer A.M.,discusses football news and events, but primarily aims to entertain due to its heavy emphasis on comedy.
The costumes used throughout soccer a.m. where women are shown make the women appear to be a subject of the male gaze where they are providing sexual pleasure, to a football audience, who are predominantly expected to be male. This connotes greatly that women are not expected to partake and be involved in football. Despite the presenter one of the presenters of the show being a woman “Helen Chamberlain”, the fact that she watches many women coming on the show mainly to provide visual pleasure as argue by Laura Mulvey connotes that she accepts. Also the institution of the programme which is Sky Sports suggests that Sky sports is a highly male dominated channel, and this is the case as the majority of people that watch the channels are men.
. There is also social reflection through many of Soccer A.M’S episodes. A patriarchal ideology is clearly apparent. A woman’s primary involvement in Soccer A/M/ is to provide visual pleasure, and as far as football goes she has no knowledge or involvement what so ever (Make special references to video on blog of the interview with FHM girls)
. The way that women are portrayed within soccer a.m, creates the impression that football in general is highly male dominated and that it is a topic that women do not know about, or are not expected to know about.
The audience, is likely to be males aged between 16-40, as the humour used within the show would appeal to men that are within this age gap.
Inside sport
Women are being greatly represented in inside sport, as Gabby Logan in the show interviews many football stars that top male interviewers even struggle to get a chance to talk to.
I think Inside Sport has been portrayed in such a way to encourage women to get more and more involved with sports. This hence also gives the impression that women are not being as under represented in sports and the media as often thought.
The Mise-en- Scene also emphasises on the importance of Gabby Logan particularly through the way she is seated in the middle of all those present, each time the show is aired. The professional studio setting also emphasises on Gabby Logan’s striking presence in the show. The close ups to her face and the low angled shots also emphasise upon Gabby Logan’s importance in the show.
The show usually opens in a way where Gabby Logan starts of briefly mentioning the key points to be discussed in the show e.g. the weeks key sports occurrences, who is going to be interviewed on the show e.t.c.
The text belongs to the sports genre. The stars of the show are usually clearly glamorised which of course are Gabby Logan and those interviewed on the show. The text does clearly conform to the conventions of normal sports chat shows such as soccer A.M., football focus e.t.c. The only way it will differentiate itself from Soccer A.M. is that inside sport also contains quite a serious tone whilst sports topics are discussed, Soccer A.M. is a sports show also used to create humour and solely entertain its audience.
The text's institution is the BBC, which is a public broadcaster. This means the text has to cater to all kinds of audiences and has to inform, educate as well as entertain. Inside sport hence has to have some appeal to all kinds of people.
The major values and Ideologies associated with Inside sport don't particularly include a patriarchal ideology as with Soccer A.M. and Football Focus. The fact that Gabby Logan presents the show and that men are included creates an ideology which promotes equality amongst genders, which many other sports show do not promote.
. Despite the presenter of the show being female, I think that males are most likely to view the show and be more attracted to it, as females don’t take as much of a keen interest in sports as males. However females interested in sports and football are more then likely to predominantly consist of being the secondary audience, as football has risen to be the most popular sport across England with females. The fact that the BBC is the institution makes Inside Sport accessible to everyone.
Match of the day- “ Historical text”- 1964
Match of the day first began in 1964, and today still is probably the most commonly known TV show associated with football within England. Though at first many did not get to see it as every household did not have BBC2 in 1964, match of the day did gradually become of greater popularity as the years progressed.
Match of the day would clearly be good to use as an historical text too include in my essay, as i can easily compare what it covered in the past to now. For example prior to recent times as in the late 1990's and early 2000's match of the day did not provide any coverage of women’s football at all and overall neither did BBC sport. In the past there was a much more emphasis on football being tightly associated with just a male audience, however today women are generally being more and more included as an audience.
The fact that everyone being interviewed to talk about the first match of the day coverage in 1964 are men, reflects greatly how football was solely targeted at men and there was a great lack of appeal to women to take an interest in it. In addition the target audience back in the 1960's for match of the day appears to be a middle class audience, as BBC 2 was not easily obtainable by everyone. However now Match of the day can be viewed by everyone who has a TV, as in it is likely to be directed at a more working class audience as well as a middle class one. This may have had some influence over why women in England took a lack of interest in viewing football, or taking interest in being involved in the sport at all, as match of the day in England was a key cause of the development and popularity of football.
Comparison between Soccer AM Inside Sport and match of the day
Soccer AM’s portrayal of women is very different to that of Inside sports. In soccer AM the women are merely there to provide sexual pleasure to a male audience and are never shown to be taking any key involvement in sports.
. Difference in ideology between soccer am and inside sport- patriarchal ideology VS Equal rights/ feminist ideology.
Gabby Logan is a commonly known iconic sports presenter and is tightly associated particularly with football. The programme shows a lot of coverage on women’s sports as well as mens.
.Match of the day pirmarily in the past did no cover any female football, and as it was the primary use of covering football overall in the UK,this could be used as a key reason why womens football did not in the past have great popularity or participation.
Issues, debates and theorists
. Laura Mulvey- Male gaze
. Dyer- how in the past womens sports coverage was near to nothing
. Talk about the debate of women not being as good as men at sports
Books and Links to make reference to
Spender, Dale (1983): Feminist Theorists. Great Sutton Street, London: The womens Press LTD.- This book particularly focuses on providing viewpoints from many of the Key theorists around in the 1980's and even up to three hundred years prior to that. This will greatly fit in to the Social and Historical aspect of my study and furthermore will provide the viewpoint from a key group associated with the progression of female sports, the Feminists.
Curran, James & Gurevitch, Michael (2000):Mass Media and Society, Third edition. Euston Road, London: Hodder Headline group.- This book focuses on providing an over view on many key aspects relevant to my study, particuarly goes in to great detail on every element of SHEP that i can mention in my study. Section 3 (The mediation of Meaning) in particular focuses on representation and has a great amount of detail on the representation of women.
Kingston, Anne (2004): The meaning of wife: Toronto, Canada: HarperCollins Publishers LTD.- This book would heavily be focusing on the political aspect of SHEP, as it provides an explanation into the traditional conservative viewpoint of the family orientated wife. The book explains what is associated with being a wife and what is expected of a wife intodays society. It looks at many iconic figures within the media who defeat the stereotype of women being housewives e.t.c. and looks at many debates associated with the women and marriage. Hence this would be a very useful book to mention in my study as it is very relevant to the representation of women.
Sardar, Ziauddin & Loon,van,Borin (2000): Introducing Media Studies: Duxford, Cambridge: Icon Books LTD- The book particularly looks at and explores the relationship between the Media, ideology, knowledge and power. Much of the book looks at ideologies present within the media and gender represetnation within the media, and hence due to this would be useful to include in my independent study.
Branston, Gill & Stafford, Roy (2003): The Media Student's Book:Abindgdon, Oxon: Routledge- This book focuses on many key aspects of Ideologies, Representation, SHEP, Audience theories, theorists and key media debates that are of high relevenace to my debate. The book also focuses on and goes into detail about many case studies that i can mention and are useful for my independent study.
Arno, Madeleine (1985): Race & Gender:Headington Hill, Oxford: Pergamon Press Ltd- This book goes into great detail about many issues regarding gender particularly within society and also education. It would be of great use in my study to focus on the social and Historical aspect of SHEP, particularly as it provides information regarding the situation in the 1980's and prior to that.
Rayner, Phillip & Wall, Peter & Kruger, Stephen(2001): Media Studies: The Essential Introduction: New Fetter Lane, London: Routledge- This book particularly shows an indepth explanation and study into gender and representation, aswell as presents key debates and case studies, that would be off high relevance to my Independent study. It also goes into great detail regarding ideologies and links to modern day media texts that i could include and refer to in my study.
Stam, Robert(2000): Film theory: Britain: Blackwell Publishers- This book goes into great detail in exploring how females are representated within film. This would be useful in my study as often films reflect and pay an influential role in what is occuring within society. It also shows different audiences viewpoints on women E.G. a male dominated film showing women in a weak role, is likely to have an audience who believe in patriarchy.
Hong,Fan and Mangan,J.A.(2003)Soccer, Women and Sexual liberation: USA: Routledge-This book exemplifies the progression of womens football over the years and is the first in depth study of womens football in particular. All aspects of this book covered will be extremely useful for my study and this is a vital book for me to research into, to find out more about womens football worldwide aswell as in the U.K.
A game for Rough girls: A history of women's football in Britain-Jean Williams - Jean Williams provides a clear insight into the history of women's football in the UK aswell as shows an insight into the stereotype of women who play football being of manly nature or having masculine characteristics. She provides an in depth view of the problems women face and have faced whilst trying to play football.
Links
http://www.footiechick.com/history/history/- This Website briefly summarises womens football and talks of where and when it started. Much of the information can be used in my independent study whilst discussing SHEP
http://virtual.clemson.edu/groups/womenstudies/flc436/mulvey.html- This website provides a detailed description of Laura Mulvey's male "Gaze" theory, a key theory and theorist that i will make references to in my independent study.
http://observer.guardian.co.uk/osm/story/0,,708320,00.html- This is the website of the guardian, which includes a story stating that Gabby Logan is the best sports trivia presenter , that has been around for a long time. Gabby Logan is a key example of acceptance of females in the sports media, who i can mention in my indepdent study.
http://www.thefword.org.uk/features/2007/10/did_you_watch_a- This website is writing about how football has failed women. It argues that media coverage of the womens world cup was appaling, and how people are only interested in watching football if it is men that are playing.
http://www.jesus-is-savior.com/Womens%20Page/christian_women_and_sports.htm-This is a link showing christian's views on sports. It shows that despite in the past women playing sports were frowned, upon christians today encourage their girls to play sports. This again would be linked to SHEP in my essay as it shows the changing social views towards women playing sports.
Saturday, 5 January 2008
Historical Text First ever Match of the day
Match of the day first began in 1964, and today still is probably the most commonly known TV show associated with football within England. Though at first many did not get to see it as every household did not have BBC2 in 1964, match of the day did gradually become of greater popularity as the years progressed.
Match of the day would clearly be good to use as an historical text too include in my essay, as i can easily compare what it covered in the past to now. For example prior to recent times as in the late 1990's and early 2000's match of the day did not provide any coverage of women’s football at all and overall neither did BBC sport. In the past there was a much more emphasis on football being tightly associated with just a male audience, however today women are generally being more and more included as an audience.
The fact that everyone being interviewed to talk about the first match of the day coverage in 1964 are men, reflects greatly how football was solely targeted at men and there was a great lack of appeal to women to take an interest in it. In addition the target audience back in the 1960's for match of the day appears to be a middle class audience, as BBC 2 was not easily obtainable by everyone. However now Match of the day can be viewed by everyone who has a TV, as in it is likely to be directed at a more working class audience as well as a middle class one. This may have had some influence over why women in England took a lack of interest in viewing football, or taking interest in being involved in the sport at all, as match of the day in England was a key cause of the development and popularity of football.
Introduction to essay
How Far are women represented in football and the media?
There is clear evidence to prove that women have been playing football almost since its ancient existence in the Han dynasty (25-220 AD), when it was anciently known as “Tsu Chu” [1]. But despite women’s involvement in the sport dating so far back, the sport clearly receive much less media coverage and generally much less acceptance by the public then there is for men’s football. There are arguably a number of reasons for this the most commonly perceptible being that women simply do not play the sport as good as men. There are a number of causes that have prevented and till date hinder the progression of women’s football. Under a century ago “Despite being more popular than some men's football events” [1] within the U.K. the most notable historical ban in women’s football the "1921 Football association ban on women playing football" [1] was introduced. Despite such preventions to the women’s football it has gradually in recent times has began to be much more socially acceptable. For example the china world cup 2007, had so much viewer ship and was so popular worldwide, it to an extent caused outrage and was the key cause for debate amongst many people who did not expect the event to be so widely enjoyed and entertain [2]. However despite there being many historical limitations and limitations existing till date, women’s football has now progressed to become "one of the worlds fastest growing sports [3].
Links used
[1]http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women's_football_(soccer)
[2]http://www.fifa.com/womenworldcup/news/newsid=610976.html
[3]http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&id=u9YGVblAc1oC&dq=soccer+women+and+sexual+liberation&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ots=a6OfGcxY8j&sig=NuWnnckd8LORgkbwg3-UObeQl4w
Books used
Hong,F.A.,Mangang,J.A.(2004): Soccer, women and sexual liberation. USA,CA:Routledge
There is clear evidence to prove that women have been playing football almost since its ancient existence in the Han dynasty (25-220 AD), when it was anciently known as “Tsu Chu” [1]. But despite women’s involvement in the sport dating so far back, the sport clearly receive much less media coverage and generally much less acceptance by the public then there is for men’s football. There are arguably a number of reasons for this the most commonly perceptible being that women simply do not play the sport as good as men. There are a number of causes that have prevented and till date hinder the progression of women’s football. Under a century ago “Despite being more popular than some men's football events” [1] within the U.K. the most notable historical ban in women’s football the "1921 Football association ban on women playing football" [1] was introduced. Despite such preventions to the women’s football it has gradually in recent times has began to be much more socially acceptable. For example the china world cup 2007, had so much viewer ship and was so popular worldwide, it to an extent caused outrage and was the key cause for debate amongst many people who did not expect the event to be so widely enjoyed and entertain [2]. However despite there being many historical limitations and limitations existing till date, women’s football has now progressed to become "one of the worlds fastest growing sports [3].
Links used
[1]http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women's_football_(soccer)
[2]http://www.fifa.com/womenworldcup/news/newsid=610976.html
[3]http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&id=u9YGVblAc1oC&dq=soccer+women+and+sexual+liberation&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ots=a6OfGcxY8j&sig=NuWnnckd8LORgkbwg3-UObeQl4w
Books used
Hong,F.A.,Mangang,J.A.(2004): Soccer, women and sexual liberation. USA,CA:Routledge
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