Media Coursework

“The reason women don't play football is because eleven of them would never wear the same outfit in public.” How are women represented in football related texts?

There is clear evidence to prove that women have been playing football almost since its ancient existence in the Han dynasty (25-220 AD), when it was known as “Tsu Chu”2. But despite women’s involvement in the sport dating so far back, the sport clearly receives less media coverage as well as less acceptance by the public then there is for men’s football. Sport within the media is classically known to contain a dominant ideology of patriarchy. Men generally are almost always thought of to be associated with all sports within the media. However, in recent times traditional values and traditional stereotypes such as “the housewife” have been broken and women are generally adopting more active and central roles in the sports field of the media. This is emphasised through recent TV sports shows such as “Inside Sport” 3, presented by Gabby Logan, which portrays a much more positive and progressive impression of women in sports.

The idea of women playing football was not thought of in the UK until after the First World War. With men away fighting, women had the opportunity to take up such hobbies. Under a century ago “Despite being more popular than some men's football events” 2 within the U.K. the most notable historical ban in women’s football, the "1921 Football association ban on women playing football" 2 was introduced. This ban stopped women from playing football on the same grounds as men. If this ban had not occurred today's society may have found that women playing football is just as acceptable and as well played as men football. In addition, this would have consequently resulted in just as great media coverage for women’s football and possibly seen the sport, at just a competitive level within the media as men’s football.

Despite such preventions to women’s football, it is gradually becoming much more socially acceptable and has gained much greater media coverage as opposed to in the past. For example, the China Women’s World Cup 2007 had a high amount of viewer ship and was extremely popular worldwide. Viewing figures for the Women's World Cup final 2007 in Germany peaked at about 12 million 4. The World Cup 2007 was therefore viewed upon as an immense success, both by organisers and the widely entertained audience5. Therefore despite historical limitations and limitations existing till date, women’s football has now progressed to become "one of the world’s fastest growing sports”6.

In addition, at present the USA is of key influence worldwide, as it is the only country in the world where women’s football can be played as an actual full time, paid profession. The USA women’s football team is referred to as “the top country in the world for women’s soccer”7. However, women’s soccer in the USA did not make much key development until the 1970’s. But once the sport became increasingly aware of, it was widely popular both at youth and amateur level. There was an extremely rapid growth in interest by mainstream sports fans as well as the media7. Many believe, that this great acceptance and rapid popularisation of women’s football within the USA, has been significantly responsible in making women’s sports appeal to a wider audience. Furthermore the development of women’s soccer within the U.S.A has been of great influence, as today’s world aspires to be increasingly americanised and therefore will take greater interest in what is popular within America.

Within the media, up to the late 1970’s, Gaye Tuchman argued that there was a “symbolic annihilation of women by the mass media” (1978)8. Tuchman asserted the belief that women were portrayed as “incompetents and inferiors”, in comparison with dominant men in the media, during her 1978 study. Tuchman stated that during this time period, men dominated every aspect shown on television such as drama and film. Even in the traditional roles that women were generally expected to dominate in, such as solving emotional and practical problems were controlled and dominated by men. Comparatively, under a decade later Gillian Dyer (1987) 8 argued that by the mid 1980’s television began to increasingly take women more seriously and they were assuming more central roles, asides from the role of “housewife” or “victim”. However, Dyer found in her 1987 study, that women were still dominated by men in a number of fields, in particular sports. Gillian Dyer from her study discovered that sports still remained “the preserve of men”. During this time period, Dyer’s study emphasises the under representation of women within the sports-media. Dyer’s study in particular points out that due to selective broadcasting an “invisibility of women” 9 was created within the sports media.

“Overall, media coverage of men’s sports massively exceeds women’s, which is given less than 10 % of time available”10. Furthermore, “women’s sports are almost always likely to be subjected to gender-marking”10. Women in sports in comparison with men are much more likely to be popular within the media and society, if they fit into a typically subjected concept of sexualisation (Brookes, 2002)11. For example within tennis, Anna Kournikova is not a world ranked and renowned tennis player, however due to her glamorised appearance, she has attained greater celebrity status than many of the world’s greatest sportswomen. This in particular, would link too women’s football as it often is referred to and known as “a game for rough girls”12. Many women that play football are known for having masculine qualities like appearing well built and broad-shouldered amongst other things. This would link to Brooke’s study of 2002, stating that women cannot be popular within the media if they do not adhere to this concept of sexualisation and have good looks. Therefore, a possible reason for women’s football not being as popular within the media, as some other women’s sports and media fields, is due to the idea that many women who play football, are not perceived to be good looking or provide visual pleasure, as argued by Laura Mulvey, to an expected dominant male audience. Mulvey, influenced by Freudian psychoanalytic theory, asserts the belief that men are the “Bearer of the look” within the mass media and women are often shown within the media for sexual objectification or visual pleasure, to a constructed male audience13. This can be greatly linked to women’s football, as a possible reason for a lack of viewer ship present may be as there is a lack of visual pleasure being offered to a targeted football audience, consisting primarily of males.

In particular, this concept of women’s involvement in sports only being popular due to them being glamorous is emphasised through the tabloid newspaper the “Daily sport”14. This newspaper discusses popular sports, in particular football. However, women’s involvement in this newspaper has nothing to do with sport, but is solely to provide visual pleasure to a dominant target male audience. Many believe the paper offers great sports news, but the great amount of “topless girls” 15 is unnecessary and does not really have any relevance to sports. However, the tabloid paper highlights much of the target audience’s viewpoints on women’s involvement within sports and particularly, stresses much of football’s target audience’s views on women’s involvement within football.

Match of the Day 16 demonstrates how women’s involvement in football has developed over the years, being both a historical and contemporary text. Prior to very recent times even in the late 1990's and early 2000's Match of the Day did not provide any coverage of women’s football at all and overall neither did BBC Sport. In the past, there was much more emphasis on football being tightly associated with just a male audience. However, today women are generally being more considered as part of an audience. Furthermore, in the past primarily the 1960’s, due to women’s key role being housewife’s, there would be a key cause for a lack of interest in sport as they would not have had the opportunity to play football, therefore could not have taken it up on a professional level as they could do today. Furthermore, due to Match of the Day being an influential text in promoting football within the UK, it is likely that a lack of coverage for women’s football would have hindered the sports progression within the UK. This would link to the two-step flow theory 17 as Match of the Day is a key TV programme in influencing public opinion within the UK. The audience will therefore, follow the beliefs that Match of the Day to an extent promotes. Therefore, as much of the day airs more coverage of women’s football, there is likely to be greater participation as well as support from an audience whose beliefs are influenced and reflected by the programme. Today Match of the day airs many key women’s football events, such as the China World Cup 2007 and Women’s domestic cup finals. In addition, in women’s matches the institution of match of the day BBC, makes special effort to keep as much off the commentators and presenters Female, which would to an extent even promote a feminist ideology. A prime example is Jacqui Oatley. Jacqui Oatley commentated on various games during the women’s world cup. Furthermore, she is often described as “Match of the Day’s First Lady” 18 as not only has she commentated on various women’s matches, she is the first woman in Match of the Day’s history to ever commentate for a men’s match. Furthermore, the fact that Jacqui Oatley is not particularly presented to adhere to the “butch rough girl”19 being associated with Women in football reflects that this stereotype is gradually diminishing. Therefore, historically match of the day very much promoted a Patriarchal ideology, portraying men dominant within a hegemonic society. However, contemporarily match of the day to a great extent promotes a more equal rights ideology.

In addition, the representation of women within other films, magazines and newspapers amongst others, clearly has influence upon many people’s social viewpoints. This can be particularly linked to the Hypodermic Needle theory20, which specifies, what the audience is “injected” with by the Mass Media is what in turn they will believe. Therefore, if the mass media promotes a certain ideology or message the target audience is highly likely to be influenced by it. Social reflection is clearly presented through many media texts, as they portray different audience’s viewpoints on women in general as well as women playing football.

Soccer A.M 21 is a programme that discusses football events and is broadcasted on Sky Sports. Soccer A.M, in comparison with the BBC’s Match of the Day targets a much smaller audience with viewer ship regularly being about 300,000 according to BARB 22. This clearly reflects that a show from Sky sports, in comparison with a show from the BBC, is likely to have less of an impact as it is only viewable by a selective audience, who pay to consume programmes broadcasted by Sky, in comparison with the BBC which is a public broadcaster and whose programmes are available to everyone with a TV license. This is important in reflecting why Soccer AM does not make major attempts to involve and promote women playing football as the BBC do, as Sky does not have to cater for everyone. In particular Soccer AM looks at women in a manner of “objectification and as a source of pleasure”23, as stated in the Male Gaze theory by Laura Mulvey. Men within the programme are the dominant group at all times and are the “lookers” and women are primarily in the programme to be “looked at”. Despite there being both a male and female presenter for soccer A.M many would argue this is not a means of promoting an ideology of equality, as the female presenter (Helen Chamberlain), is both good looking and glamorous, hence she may also be there as means of objectification and to provide a target male audience with visual pleasure, as almost all of the women that are shown within the programme are portrayed. Soccer AM, within every episode portrays a number of women in a manner where they know nothing about football and are dressed in a manner where they are solely there to provide the target male audience with a sense of “scopophilia”23. Moreover, as opposed to promoting women playing football as Match of the Day does, Soccer AM to an extent demotes the idea of women taking an involvement within Football, as the target audience for the programme is constructed to be solely males, reflected through the humour in particular and the portrayal of the women broadcasted. Women are not catered for within the programme and are not considered to be a part of the target audience. Almost all of the women also adhere to the “dumb bimbo” stereotype believed to have originated in the early 1920’s 24. They are primarily presented as “promiscuous, stupid, uneducated and helpless” 24 in comparison with the dominant male, making Soccer A.M., portray a dominant patriarchal ideology.

Comparatively, Inside Sport 25 presented by “Angelic Host” 26 Gabby Logan as quoted by the liberal Observer, promotes a dominant ideology of equal rights and arguably a dominant feminist ideology, emphasised through the way Gabby Logan is always situated in the middle with all other members of the show sitting beside her (usually men), making her the centre of attention. Gabby Logan in particular, is a well-known figure for her sports knowledge and her ability to present just as good or even better then most male presenters. “She's glamorous, but it's not her looks that have made Gabby Logan a key member of ITV's world cup team”26. Gabby Logan was a key presenter for ITV’s world cup 2006 team, and many believe she “beats the men hands down at sports trivia - and even Des Lynam thinks she could be his successor”26. Within Inside Sport Gabby Logan presents women in the media to be sophisticated, well educated and intelligent. In addition, with Soccer A.M. solely broadcasting and discussing men’s football, Inside Sport within every episode inclusively broadcasts and discusses women’s involvement in sports, or shows influential and uprising female sports figures. For example Gabby Logan’s interview with “big sharran” 27, the British female sumo wrestler was extremely authentic as well as shocking to the target audiences, as female sumo wrestling is something barely shown or discussed on TV. Through such prime examples it is evident that Inside Sport aims to shed light on women’s sports and promote it to a broader audience.

Today in a changing society and in particular the existence of the “new man” coming about in the 1970’s and 1980’s, there has been an inevitable influence on the acceptance of women’s football, from men and society in general. The fact that more and more men are getting in touch with there “feminine side”28, reflects that football now does not take such a huge patriarchal stance and does not stand for pure masculinity and overall being macho. The fact that today, as opposed to the past more and more men are developing feminine qualities, such as sensitivity, would therefore change many peoples viewpoints.

A key football figure associated with the new man is David Beckham. David Beckham is a household figure and the name “Beckham” is a brand within itself. David Beckham a commonly referred to “new man” is known for his sensitivity such as enjoying private time away with his family and makes this very clear to the mass media. Furthermore, Beckham is also known for his adoption of female traits such as his very “keen fashion sense”29. David Beckham himself is seen as role model by many and is greatly in touch with his feminine side. As well as being known for one of the greatest footballers of all time, Beckham is equally well known for being sensitive and for being “portrayed as a loving father, a New Man and a gentle man” by the media30. Therefore, Beckhams viewpoints and beliefs are therefore clearly likely to have influence on many people in particular his global fan base and audience consisting of millions. In addition, the fact that David Beckham comes from a traditionally sexist working class background is likely to have influence over an even wider fan base to adopt more qualities of the “new man”. This audience response can also link to the two-step flow theory 31, as Beckham is likely to have immense influence over his huge fan base, which will aspire to adopt similar qualities as himself.

Finally, "bend it like Beckham"(dir: Gurinder Chadha, 2002) 32 is an extremely recognised film for promoting women’s football. The film is about a young Indian girl, who tries to play football, but her traditional Indian family restrict her from doing so. However, “Jess Bhamra” within the film inevitably takes football up as a profession in America. Moreover, promoting women’s ability to professionally compete within football was not the films sole intention. Bend it like Beckham is a film that promotes equal rights as well as female independence, therefore making it particularly liked by feminists. It is evident that this film alone played a key role in the progression of women's football in the UK. A key reason for popularity being the film bears David Beckhams name. This in particular, would greatly increase the films popularity and ability to reach a broader audience. Another fact in making the film such a success is the key role the Football Association in UK played in promoting the film. The Football Association’s support enabled it to be so popular not only in Britain but also worldwide. This involvement and support by the F.A enabled the director Gurinder Chada to reach a global audience as the F.A. immensely aided within the advertising and promotional aspects of Bend it like Beckham.

Therefore, in conclusion despite in the past women being “invisible” in the sports media, women’s football is becoming much more popular in reaching a global audience. Women’s involvement within football and the representation of this within the media has greatly increased. Over the years women’s football and sports in general are being increasingly shown on screen and are now targeting a much broader audience. However, despite limitations still existent hindering the sport from progressing, as much as many of its supporters would like it too, the sport and its representation within the media has greatly increased, reflecting a society that is increasingly adopting and promoting an equal rights ideology.


1 http://www.notable-quotes.com/f/football_quotes.html
2 [1]http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women's_football_(soccer)
3 Inside Sport

4 http://www.iht.com/articles/2007/10/29/sports/arena29.php
5 http://www.fifa.com/womenworldcup/news/newsid=610976.html
6 ] Hong,F.A.,Mangang,J.A.(2004): Soccer, women and sexual liberation. USA,CA:Routledge
7 http://www.sover.net/~spectrum/womensoverview.html
8 Gauntlett, David (2002): Media, Gender and identity; Routledge
9 http://www.jstor.org/pss/190027
10 Branston, Gill & Stafford, Roy (2003): The Media Student's Book:Abindgdon, Oxon: Routledge
11 Branston (2002): The Media Student's Book:Abindgdon, Oxon: Routledge
12 Williams, Jean (2003): A game for rough girls: CA, Routledge
13 http://www.aber.ac.uk/media/Documents/gaze/gaze09.html
13 http://www.aber.ac.uk/media/Documents/gaze/gaze09.html
14 Daily Sport- (Tabloid Newspaper)
15 http://www.reviewcentre.com/reviews11439.html
16 Match of the day
17 Lazarsfeld, P.F., Berelson, B. & Gaudet, H. (1944). The people’s choice: How the voter makes up his mind in a presidential campaign. New York: Columbia University Press.
18 http://www.dailymail.co.uk/pages/live/articles/sport/football.html?in_page_id=1779&in_article_id=449195
19 Williams, Jean (2003): A game for rough girls: CA, Routledge
20 Berger, Arthur Asa Essentials of Mass Communication Theory London: SAGE Publications, 1995.
21 Soccer am
22 http://www.digitalspy.co.uk/forums/showthread.php?t=641504
23 http://virtual.clemson.edu/groups/womenstudies/flc436/mulvey.html
23 http://virtual.clemson.edu/groups/womenstudies/flc436/mulvey.html
24 Sardar, Ziauddin & Loon,van,Borin (2000): Introducing Media Studies: Duxford, Cambridge: Icon Books LTD
24 Sardar, Ziauddin & Loon,van,Borin (2000): Introducing Media Studies: Duxford, Cambridge: Icon Books LTD
25 Inside Sport
26 http://observer.guardian.co.uk/osm/story/0,,708320,00.html
27 http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/tv_and_radio/inside_sport/6661317.stm
28 http://www.cartoonstock.com/directory/n/new_man.asp
29 http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/cambridgeshire/3522920.stm
30 http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,1065-2257878,00.html
31 Lazarsfeld, P.F., Berelson, B. & Gaudet, H. (1944). The people’s choice: How the voter makes up his mind in a presidential campaign. New York: Columbia University Press.
32 "bend it like beckham"( dir: Gurinder Chadha, 2002)



3,059 words


Books

[20] (Page 5) Berger, Arthur Asa Essentials of Mass Communication Theory London: SAGE Publications, 1995.- This Book talks about mass communication theories and in particular has a lot of detailed information regarding the Hypodermic needle and two step flow audience theory. Describes how through mass communication audiences consume information.

[11] (Page 3) Branston (2002): The Media Student's Book:Abindgdon, Oxon: Routledge – The book provides key and detailed information regarding various media topics, however contains precise information which I could implement in my study regarding the representation of women.

[10] (Page 4) Branston, Gill & Stafford, Roy (2003): The Media Student's Book:Abindgdon, Oxon: Routledge – This book is a newer edition and provides key and detailed information regarding various media topics, however this book I found had more information regarding Female representation within sports in particular, which I found useful to include and quote within my study.

[6] (page 2)Hong,F.A.,Mangang,J.A.(2004): Soccer, women and sexual liberation. USA,CA:Routledge- This book talks about the progression of women’s football from the past and describes how it is one of the fastest growing sports, making particular references to key development within the USA.

[8] (page 2) Gauntlett, David (2002): Media, Gender and identity; Routledge- Includes many key gender theories and discusses the development of gendered representation within the contemporary media. Discusses key development in female representation within the media from the past up till now which I found useful to include in my study at various points.

[17] (Page 4/page5) Lazarsfeld, P.F., Berelson, B. & Gaudet, H. (1944). The people’s choice: How the voter makes up his mind in a presidential campaign. New York: Columbia University Press. Further a book discussing mass communications, contains a great amount of detail regarding how audiences are influenced making particular references to the hypodermic needle theory and two step flow theory amongst many others.

[24] (Page 6/page 7) Sardar, Ziauddin & Loon,van,Borin (2000): Introducing Media Studies: Duxford, Cambridge: Icon Books LTD – This book contains a lot of key information regarding the representation of women within the media, which I made references to within my independent study. It discusses stereotypes in particular and how accurate they are In providing representation within the media.




[12] (Page 3/ page 5) Williams, Jean (2003): A game for rough girls: CA, Routledge – This book discusses the stereotype of women playing football having masculine qualities. This is a key stereotype discussed within my essay as it shows how this could be an aspect hindering the development of women’s football.


Websites



[1] (page 1) http://www.notable-quotes.com/f/football_quotes.html - Quote for essay question taken from this website, by Phyllis Diller a female stand up comedian in America.

[2] (page 1)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women's_football_(soccer) – Link describes key historical as well as contemporary development of women’s football.


[4] (page 2) http://www.iht.com/articles/2007/10/29/sports/arena29.php - Link providing viewing figures for popular China World Cup 2007.

[5] (page 2) http://www.fifa.com/womenworldcup/news/newsid=610976.html - This website emphasises on the popularity of the China World Cup 2007

[7] (page 2) http://www.sover.net/~spectrum/womensoverview.html - This website states the development of women’s football within the USA and how it became popular over there.

[9[ (page 3)http://www.jstor.org/pss/190027 - Website contains information regarding the Symbolic annihilation of women.


[13] (page 3) http://www.aber.ac.uk/media/Documents/gaze/gaze09.html - This website has information on Laura Mulveys Male Gaze theory, and describes it in detail.

[15] (page 4) http://www.reviewcentre.com/reviews11439.html - This website reviews the newspaper the daily sport.

[18] ( page 5_ ) http://www.dailymail.co.uk/pages/live/articles/sport/football.html?in_page_id=1779&in_article_id=449195 – This website contains information on Jacqui Oatley a well known female football commentator, which is an article taken from the newspaper the dailymail.


[22] (page 6) http://www.digitalspy.co.uk/forums/showthread.php?t=641504 – This website has the viewing figures for Soccer Am.

[23] (Page 6) http://virtual.clemson.edu/groups/womenstudies/flc436/mulvey.html- This website provides further information on Laura Mulvey’s Male Gaze theory

[26] (page 7) http://observer.guardian.co.uk/osm/story/0,,708320,00.html – This website has an article on it about Gabby Logan, a female sports presenter, taken out of the left wing newspaper the Guardian.

[27] (page 7) http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/tv_and_radio/inside_sport/6661317.stm - This website is about the BBC sports show Inside Sport, presented by Gabby Logan

[28] (page 7) http://www.cartoonstock.com/directory/n/new_man.asp - This website has a lot of key information about the New Man, illustrated through cartoon strips, taken out of magazines.

[29] (page 8) http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/cambridgeshire/3522920.stm - This website describes how David Beckham is greatly in touch with his feminine side and is a key figure associated with the term the “new man”.

[30] (page 8) http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,1065-2257878,00.html – Another Website about David Beckham being in touch with his feminine side.


Articles

[18] ( page 5_ ) http://www.dailymail.co.uk/pages/live/articles/sport/football.html?in_page_id=1779&in_article_id=449195 – This website contains information on Jacqui Oatley a well known female football commentator, which is an article taken out of the Daily mail.

[26] (page 7) http://observer.guardian.co.uk/osm/story/0,,708320,00.html – This website has an article on it about Gabby Logan, a female sports presenter, taken out of the left wing newspaper the Guardian,

[28] (page 7) http://www.cartoonstock.com/directory/n/new_man.asp - This website has a lot of key information about the New Man, illustrated through cartoon strips taken out of Magazines.

[30] (page 8) http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,1065-2257878,00.html - Another Website about David Beckham being in touch with his feminine side, an article taken out of the Newspaper the Times.



TV and Film
[3] (Page 1/ page 7) Inside Sport, BBC- References to various dates since it began on the 10th april year 2007. Presented by Gabby Logan, show that discusses key sports events.

[16] (Page 4) Match of the Day, BBC- References to various dates dating back from the 1960’s up until present.

[21] (Page 6) Soccer AM, Sky Sports- Reference to recent times being aired in particular the year 2007. A show that discusses key sports events, presented by Andy Goldstein and Helen Chamberlain.


[32] (Page 8) “Bend it Like Beckham” ( Dir: Gurinder Chada, 2002)- Film about an Indian girl wanting to play football, however her family does not allow her to.